Different Parenting Styles, Authoritative, Authoritarian,...

This essay explores the four different types of parenting styles, authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. The exploration of each parenting style is examined, and the outcomes of each parenting style for the child is learned. Each parenting style has positives and negatives, but overall this essay informs the reader about which parenting style is best linked to success in their child’s education. Information for this essay has been gathered from three sources, the sources being the Journal of Education and Human Development, the writing of Abesha A. Gota, and the writing of Crystal Lombardo. Each source connects the four different parenting styles, and the results of them on children in school. The focus of how children act in school, and how well they perform academically is a direct effect of the parenting styles used on children. Every parent uses one of four parenting styles with their children. Those parenting styles are categorized as uninvolved parenting, permissive parenting, authoritative parenting, and authoritarian parenting. As it was written by Abesha A. Gota, â€Å"As discussed earlier, it is evident that parents in all cultures (i.e., in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures) are the primary socialization agents responsible for transmission of cultural values, beliefs, traditions, and norms which are necessary for the attainment of cultural standards of competence to their children† (Gota, 2012, p.62). EachShow MoreRelatedAnalysis of Differing Parenting Styles796 Words   |  3 Pagesthree main styles of parenting widely accepted in the field of Psychology, which are authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. A fourth style, uninvolved/neglectful, is also being more widely recognized. The likes of Erickson and Baumrind have long since contributed to research efforts on t he effects of parenting styles on child development. With numerous factors influencing both the parents and the child’s response to the parenting style is can be difficult to assess the best style for an optimalRead MoreParenting Styles Have Impact On Society1096 Words   |  5 PagesParenting styles have had an impact on society for centuries. The way caregivers bring up the children they are responsible for, paves the way to their future and personality. Children are continuously interpreting the things that their caregivers do. Including messages, body language, conversations, actions and the different styles of parenting. Various parenting styles continue to reflect the different patterns in parental behaviours. These are influenced in their family environments in which bothRead MoreDiana Baumrind s Effect Of Parenting Styles On Children Essay1312 Words   |  6 PagesDiana Baumrind’s effect of parenting styles on children Baumrind was born into a Jewish community in the New York’s Jewish enclaves. She was the first two daughters of Hyman and Mollie Blumberg. Diana, the eldest in an extended family of female cousins, inherited the role of eldest son, which allowed her to participate in serious conversations about philosophy, ethics, literature, and politics. She completed her B.A. in Psychology and Philosophy at Hunter College in 1948, and her M.A. and Ph.D. inRead MoreParenting: Diana Baumrind Theory648 Words   |  3 Pagesparent can be with their kids. Many dont take the time to see how a parent is truly. Most parents dont realize how their parenting methods affect their childs development. Most parents dont realize how bad or good of a parent they are. Many of them dont see that their kids imitate the methods they use to discipline their kids. In fact there are many types of different beliefs of parents. But there are certain people who observe the children’s behavior. Because some times people can notice howRead MoreThe Parenting Styles Authoritative, Authoritarian, And Permissive Essay1297 Words   |  6 Pagesparent your children? What is your parenting style? Experts have identified four major parenting types: Permissive, Authoritarian, Uninvolved, and Authoritative. Diana Baumrind (1966) was the one to identify three of the parenting styles Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive. Martin and Maccoby (1983) expanded on Baumrind’s parenting styles and added the Uninvolved style. Which style of parenting do you think you fall into? Frist, Authoritative Parenting is considered the most successfulRead MoreInfancy and Early Childhood Development1399 Words   |  6 Pagesfrom parents or families, perception of surrounding objects, and recognizing facial expressions (Berger, 2008). Dependent experiences are less universal and are more individualized, and depend mostly on the infant’s environment and surroundings. Different cultures and family belief systems come into play in dependent experiences. The experience-dependent aspects of development are the experiences that create diversity among infants and young children. Parents and or caregivers have a very dominantRead MoreThe Fbi Behavior Analysis Unit1443 Words   |  6 PagesKarley Pecosky Psychology Parenting Styles The FBI Behavior Analysis Unit can profile a person down to the type of household they grew up in. Behavior as an adult, especially of a psychopath, is usually in correlation to a traumatic event of their childhood, usually involving their parents. The FBI has the ability to analyze all the behaviors of a person and tell you what kind of car they are mostly likely to drive, what profession they are most likely involved in, and in most cases, links toRead MoreYouth Violence : A Growing Issue Of The United States1470 Words   |  6 PagesParenting Matters Youth violence has become a growing issue in the United States. According to the U.S. Secret Service, â€Å"in the previous decade, the odds of a high school student being injured or threatened with a weapon were about 1 in 14, and the odds of a teen being in a physical fight were 1 in 7† (Youth Violence Statistics 18). Statistics has also proven that youth violence and bullying within school environment intensified in recent years and has remained high. Indeed, youth themselves areRead MoreHow Parenting Styles Affect Childhood Development1139 Words   |  5 Pages How Different Parenting Styles Affect Childhood Development Parenting is one of the most challenging yet rewarding experiences in an adult’s life. Parents can greatly affect their children’s behavior and development. Children are like sponges, they soak up everything they see a parent do and model what they see into their own lives and actions. It is important that parents are good examples and set high standards for their children. Negative examples can be harmful to a child’s development andRead MoreParenting Styles, Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive And Uninvolved981 Words   |  4 PagesParenting style has a big impact on how children develop into adults, and there are important implications for their future success. (Ronald Riggio, 2014) How a parent treated their child will follow the child for the rest of its life. Different parenting styles and their punishments that follow can affect the child mentally (psychological disorders) and physically (obesity). While we all know some forms of punishment is uncal led for such as persistence spanking is not typically just punishment but

Political Transitions During Women s Status - 2648 Words

Political Transitions in Myanmar and Changes in Burmese Women’s Status Since its independence in 1948 until 2008, Myanmar was an island unto itself. Although being the largest mainland country in Southeast Asia, it is also one of the least known countries in the region. Decades of military dictatorship and a policy of isolationism made Myanmar one of the least developed countries in the world with a population of 60 million people. Various international agencies, such as the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), classify Myanmar as a â€Å"low-income country under stress† and â€Å"least developed country (LDC)† –this indicates that the country not only suffers from extreme poverty, but it also exhibits the lowest†¦show more content†¦Although the Burmese government and various NGOs have made concerted efforts to promote women’s rights since 2008, there is still much room for improvement in the rural and remote border areas. In this paper, I will examine how the role and status of Burmese wo men have changed through Myanmar’s multiple political transitions, ranging from colonialism, through military junta, to democracy. Special attention will be paid to examining gender inequality in education and political participation. In addition, I argue that tensions between the various racial and ethnic groups in Myanmar serve as deterrents to the efforts made to improve women’s status. Contrary to the common perception that women in Southeast Asia traditionally enjoyed a high status in society, many scholars generally agree that such assumptions about the purported status of women are oversimplified by â€Å"postcolonial scholars in order to perpetuate the discourse of gender equality.† (Ikeya 2006:51). According to Chie Ikeya, the â€Å"traditional† high status of women in Myanmar has been used since its independence from Great Britain to assert and implicit the message of gender equality (2006:53). This explains why not only gender inequality persists in Southeast Asia, but why the very discourse of gender equality also does not get enough attention in this region. Ikeya argues that the â€Å"traditional† high status of women in Southeast Asia

Economics Natural Monopoly

Question: Discuss about theEconomicsfor Natural Monopoly. Answer: Introduction Various forms of market exist in an economy. These markets are differentiated with respect to their attributes or characteristics. Among the various forms of market, natural monopoly is one such form of market, where a single firm has experienced monopoly. The firms are considered as one of the largest suppliers of the products in the market. They are regarded as the most efficient organization in order to handle the supply of the whole market. This helps in analysing the beneficial effect to the society and to the firm as well. Natural monopolist produces at quite a large scale which thereby provides them with the opportunity to produce the total supply of the market by being cost advantageous. The cost incurred in the market to produce the total supply of the market by two or more firms is quite larger than that of the natural monopolist (Browning Zupan, 2014). Hence, it is quite beneficial for the market to promote the existence of just one firm in the market. The government r a regulatory board of the government takes the initiative for setting the price of the natural monopoly products in the market. This essay provides a clear view of how government utilises various economical theories related to different forms of market, imperfections in monopoly, regulation of natural monopoly and how government plans to execute the process of pricing the products. These theories and government regulator implementation would be explained further with the help of an example taken on the Australian Rail Network. This would provide a better analysis on how the government plans to fix the price of the natural monopolist at the point where the demand curve cuts the average total cost curve. Analysis Forms of market, difference between perfect competition and monopoly and their profit In an economy, a market structure is analysed based on it characteristics and its competition with the other firms. Variation in the attributes of the market helps in framing a particular form of structure of the market, which provides an effect on its products, pricing strategies and competition with the other firms. Depending upon these attributes, a market can be stated as perfect competition or imperfect competition market. Under perfectly competitive market, perfect competitive firms exist. Under an imperfect competition market, monopoly, monopsony, monopolistic competition and oligopoly exists (Case, Fair, Oster, 2014). Among the stated names of the market forms, the two extreme forms of market are perfectly competitive firm and monopoly. Under a perfectly competitive market, the products that are produced by the firms are homogeneous in nature. The buyers and sellers in the market have complete knowledge regarding the product and the prices of the product, hence, each firm in such a market is a price taker. Under a monopoly firm, the firm is the sole proprietor of the market. The products that are produced by the firm are heterogeneous in nature, hence, they set the price of the product on their own will. A monopolist firm practices price discrimination among its customers. It could be stated that the perfect competitive market results in greatest amount of economic surplus (Chopra, 2013). Yet, it i s always found that a monopolist would produce less and charge a higher price in the market for producing the same good or service as that of the perfect competitor firm. This can be illustrated with the help of the following diagram. Figure 1: Effect of Change of a Firm from Perfect Competition to Monopoly (Source: As Created By Author) In the above figure 1, the price of the products of the perfectly competitive firm is fixed where the demand and supply curves of the industry intersect each other. Hence, the price and quantity of the firm is fixed at Pc and Qc respectively. As the perfectly competitive firm is transformed into a monopoly firm, the demand curve of the firm is no longer inelastic in nature. The demand curve that is faced by the monopoly firm is downward sloping. The equilibrium point of the firm is achieved where the marginal cost curve of the firm intersects the demand curve. This results in the price of the product to be pm and the quantity to be Qm. It is quite easily visible from the following diagram that the perfectly competitive for there are m has to provide a quantity greater than that of the monopoly firm and the price charged by them is lesser than the monopoly firm . Hence, it could be stated that when a firm changes from a perfectly competitive framework to a monopolist, there are consid erable chances of earning profits in the industry. Inefficiencies in Monopoly A firm that belongs to the monopoly from f market charges higher price for a lower quantity of products to be supplied in order to attain maximum profit from the business. Hence, this shows that a monopolist firm reduces consumer surplus along with the reduction in economic inefficiency of the market. There is an existence of a deadweight loss in the market (Cooper John, 2013). Hence, it could be stated that the organization exerts social costs in the market thereby promoting certain inefficiencies of the market structure. The inefficiency of the monopoly form of market can be illustrated with the help of figure 2. Figure 2 : Inefficiency In Monopoly Market (Source : As Created By Author) In figure 2, the firms equilibrium is at the point where the marginal cost curve intersects the marginal revenue curve. The equilibrium price and quantity is pm and qm respectively. If it would have been a perfectly competitive market, the price and quantity supplied by the firm would have been Pc and Qc. Hence, it could be stated that there is a reduction in consumer surplus equivalent o the area of the rectangle A. Correspondingly, with the fall in the quantity of goods to be produced in the economy, there is a considerable amount of deadweight loss, equivalent to the area B and C. Under natural monopoly, the number of firms in the industry has been reduced to one. The firm who are acknowledges as natural monopolists are in their long run and have incurred high fixed costs. It is efficient for the market to have just one efficient firm. This would help in increasing the efficiency of the market. Yet, being a single firm in the economy, the natural monopolist charges a high price of its products, raising the inefficiencies of the market and incurring social costs. In order to control such a situation of analysing market power, the government or some other government regulatory body often regulates the natural monopoly firm. Government Regulation The purpose of the government intervention in the monopoly market is to reduce the social loss and increase the social welfare which decreases due to monopoly practices. Following the ideas of the Redmond (2013), it can be said that the producer operating in the natural monopoly market can increase the price of the commodity to such an extent that the social benefits gets reduced. Due to this, the consumers will also lose utility from consuming that commodity. The government intervenes in such cases and pushes the price down to counter the situation in the natural monopoly, as given in the figure below: Figure: Government intervention in a natural monopoly market. Source: As created by the author. According to the figure above, the monopolist who is operating in a natural monopoly market can produce at that point of output, where his marginal revenue (MR) and marginal cost (MC) equals. In other words the condition can be stated as MR = MC. Following this condition, the monopolist charges a price of Pm, at which Qm quantity is sold. In the views of Stiglitz (2015), this condition causes the society to incur a cost, which no market agents receive. This cost is also named as the dead weight loss. This loss incorporates the buyers losing a portion of their consumer surplus. The government balances this loss by creating a price ceiling, above which the monopolist operating in the natural monopoly situation, cannot charge the consumers. This price level benefits the both the buyers and the society as a whole. The monopolist also receives normal profit due to this. As stated by Scitovsky (2013), the government has the opportunity to stet the price to the point of output where the demand or Average revenue is equal to the producers marginal cost. This will make the producer supply Qe amount of commodity at the price level Pe. This is the efficient level of the market. Here the consumer can buy more commodity at a much lower price, and hence receives a huge benefit. On the other hand, the producer gets back his marginal cost following this price level. The marginal cost is associated with only the variable cost of production. Hence, following this price level the producer will not be able to cover his fixed cost. Therefore, in the long run, the producer incurs loss. This ensures that the social welfare is not maximized here as all the market agents are not getting benefitted at the Pe level of price. As stated before, the government goal is to set a price level which will ensure that the dead weight loss is decreased and the social welfare increases at the same time. So, if the government sets the price level at Pe, the social welfare is not increased at all as the producer incurs a loss which amounts same as his fixed cost of production. In the views of Schubert (2013), this situation will make the producer leave the market as he will not be able to cover his cost. The government can address this issue by creating the price ceiling which will make the producer operate at the output level where his average cost of production and demand or the average revenue are equal (AR = AC). This situation presents a price level Pr and the corresponding level of quantity will be Qr. This situation represents the market situation which is similar to that of a perfectly competitive market structure. Here, the price level is lower than the monopoly market, but higher than the efficient level. In other words, the situation can be presented as Pm Pr Pe. According to Lim (2015), at this level of price the producer will be able to cover both of his variable and fixed cost in the long run. The amount the producer will be supplying at this level of price is Qr which is greater than the monopoly level and lower than the efficient level. This can be written as Qe Qr Qm. The producer at this point of production enjoys the normal profit. The level of price is also reasonable for the consumers. The society also faces no dead weight loss, hence it can be said that this price-output level (Pr, Qr) represents a Pareto efficient situation, deviation from which will ensure social loss. The railway system of Australia, where the government has opted for privatization for some of the parts of the railways, presents a situation of natural monopoly. The government of Australia ensured that two private companies are not operating at the same zone, as it will reduce revenue, efficiency, and social welfare. According to Simon (2015), the government countered this natural monopoly situation with a decreased price level which increases the social welfare and balances the consumer surplus. The private companies are also enjoying more or less normal profit, which helps those to cover both their variable and fixed costs of production. Conclusion The natural monopoly advocates of a situation where no other can seller can enter the market without any active barriers creation process by the producer, due the cost structure in the market. The situation gives the producer the potential to abuse his power by making the price level very high for generating more profit. The government thus intervenes in the market and the production process. The governments goal here is to maximize the social welfare, reduce the dead weight loss, balancing the benefits for both the consumer and the producer. For this purpose the government sets the price at that point where the demand or the average revenue is equal to the average cost. The same situation is observed in the Australian railway system, where the government has opted for privatization, and then set the price at a Pareto efficient level. It benefits both the consumers and the sellers while increasing the social benefit and reducing the dead weight loss of the society. Bibliography Browning, E. K. (2014). Microeconomics: Theory and Applications. Wiley Global Education. Browning, E. K., Zupan, M. A. (2014). Microeconomics: Theory and Applications. . Wiley Global Education. Case, K., Fair, R., Oster, S. (2014). Principles of Microeconomics. Pearson Higher Ed. Chopra, A. (2013). PAT, 2(3.2). CMP: INR1, 398 Buy. , 3-9. Cooper, R., John, A. A. (2013). Macroeconomics: Theory Through Applications. publisher not identified. Lim, C. S. (2015). Dynamic natural monopoly regulation: Time inconsistency, moral hazard, and political environments. Stanford : Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, mimeo, November. Redmond, W. (2013). Three modes of competition in the marketplace. American Journal of Economics and Sociology , 423-446. Schubert, C. (2013). Is novelty always a good thing? Towards an evolutionary welfare economics. In The Two Sides of Innovation. Springer International Publishing. Scitovsky, T. (2013). Welfare Competition. Routledge., (Vol. 103). Simon, H. (2015). Prices and Decisions. In Confessions of the Pricing Man . Springer International Publishing. Stiglitz, J. E. (2015). Economics of the Public Sector: Fourth International Student Edition. . WW Norton Company.

Tourism In Asia Essay Example For Students

Tourism In Asia Essay AsiaAsia, largest of the earths seven continents. With outlying islands, it covers an estimated 44,936,000 sq km (17,350,000sq mi), or about one-third of the worlds total land area. Asia has morethan 3.2 billion inhabitants. Its peoples account for three-fifths of theworlds population. Lying almost entirely in the northernhemisphere, Asia is bounded by the Arctic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. We will write a custom essay on Tourism In Asia specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The conventional boundary between Europe and Asia is drawn at the UralMountains in Russia. Asia and Africa are separated by the Red Sea. Asiais divided for convenience into five major realms: the areas of the formerUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR); East Asia, including China,Mongolia, Korea, and Japan; Southeast Asia; South Asia, including the Indiansubcontinent; and Southwest Asia, including much of the Middle East. Thecontinent may also be divided into two cultural realms: that which is Asianin culture (East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia) and that which isnot (Asia of the former USSR, and Southwest Asia). The Natural EnvironmentAsias interior consists of mountains,plateaus, and intervening structural basins. The continents physiographicsystem focuses on the Pamirs, a towering plateau region located where theborders of India, China, and Afghanistan converge. It is known as the Roofof the World. Mountain ranges spiral out from the Pamirs to the west (HinduKush), and southeast (Great Himalayas). These ranges form an imposing eastern-westernarc, about 2500 km (about 1550 mi) in length, that contains numerous peaksof heights well more than 6100 m (20,000 ft), including the highest peakin the world, Mount Everest. Other ranges extend east and northeast ofthe Pamirs (Karakorum, Kunlun, and Tien Shan). Between the Himalayan systemand the Karakorum-Kunlun ranges lies the high Tibetan Plateau. Around thiscentral core are arrayed four major plateau regions (Siberia, eastern China,southern India, and the Arabian Peninsula) and several major structuralbasins and river plains. Several major rivers flow north to theArctic Ocean, others drain into the great interior drainage basin of Asia. In the south, southeast, and east, rivers such as the Ganges, Mekong, andHuang He (Yellow River) flow through vast lowlands. Climates in Asia rangefrom equatorial to arctic. Vegetation is extraordinarily diverse, rangingfrom tundra, grasslands, and desert scrub, to coniferous and mixed forests,tropical forest, and equatorial rain forests. Animal life is equally diverse. Asia is enormously rich in mineral resources. The PeopleThe peoples of Asia are more diverse thanthose of any other continent, and they are highly concentrated in a smallproportion of the total area, chiefly in southern and eastern Asia. Mongoloidpeoples are predominant in East Asia and mainland Southeast Asia. Malayo-Polynesianpeoples prevail in the archipelagos of Southeast Asia. Caucasoid peoplesdominate South Asia, Southwest Asia, Siberia, and much of Central Asia. Chinese culture permeates East Asia, althoughthe Tibetan, Mongol, Korean, and Japanese cultures have their own languages. Southeast Asia is more diversified, with separate ethnolinguistic groupsof Malay, Thai, Vietnamese, and others. In South Asia, Dravidian and Indo-Aryanlanguages are spoken. In Southwest Asia, Persian (Farsi), Semitic, andTurkic languages identify various ethnic groups. Turkic speakers also arenumerous in Central Asia and in western China. Russian is the principallanguage in Siberia. Islam dominates in Southwest Asia and Central Asiaand is of major importance in South Asia and Indonesia. Hinduism is predominantin India. Buddhism extends through interior Asia and into Southeast Asia,China and Japan. Patterns of Economic DevelopmentMost of Asia is economically underdeveloped,but a number of important exceptions exist. Japan has successfully modernizedits economy, as have Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore. The majority ofthe continents population is employed in agriculture characterized bylow yields and low labor productivity. Rice is the food-staple crop ofthe south and east, although wheat and other dry grains are also grown. .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 , .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 .postImageUrl , .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 , .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8:hover , .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8:visited , .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8:active { border:0!important; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8:active , .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8 .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u0423e3457e6d0894e42f3194e6ab2bb8:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Information Technology EssayIn Asias drier interior regions, the raising of cattle, sheep, and horsesis important. Lumbering is an important industry in most Southeast Asiancountries. Marine fisheries are extremely important throughout coastalAsia. Japan is the worlds leading fishing country, and China follows closely. Mining also is an important activity in most Asian countries; petroleumis the most important mineral export. Many areas have petroleum resources,but Southwest Asia contains the largest reserves. Relatively few people in Asia are employedin manufacturing. In general, urban centers and their industries are notwell integrated economically with the rural sector, and transportationsystems, both within countries and between them, are poorly developed. A very high proportion of Asias world trade is with countries on othercontinents, rather than between Asian countries. The important exceptionsare the flow of oil and raw materials from other Asian nations to Japan,and the export of Japanese manufactured goods to Southeast Asia. HistoryThe following historical survey attemptsto show the interactions, collisions, and successions of Asian civilizationsin continental terms. For additional information on countries or regionsmentioned, see the history sections of articles on the individual Asiancountries. The earliest known civilizations arosein the great river valleys of Southwest Asia, northwest India, and northernChina before 3000 BC. All were agricultural societies that developed advancedsocial and political structures to maintain irrigation and flood-controlsystems. Raiding nomadic herders forced the populations to live in walledcities for defense and to entrust their protection to an aristocratic classof leaders. Eventually artisans provided trade items, which brought exchangesbetween cultures. From 500 BC to AD 600, the early civilizationsexpanded and interacted. By AD 500 the major world religions and philosophies,with the exception of Islam (which had not yet been founded), had spreadfar from their places of origin. In the west and south, elements of Persian,Greek, and Indian culture spread widely. In the east, Chinese influencespread until, in the early centuries AD, waves of Turkic, Mongol, and Hunnishinvaders set off tribal movements that pushed through Central Asia. ManyChinese fled south to the Yangtze Valley. Chinese culture spread from thereto Korea and Japan. From the 7th century to the 15th century,two forces dominated Asian events: the spread of the new religion of Islamand the expansion of the Mongols, who conquered much of Asia and threatenedEurope. In the 7th century the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, and his successors,the Umayyad caliphs (see Caliphate), spread Islam from India to Spain. The Mongols who dominated Asia for twocenturies originated in the vast Asian steppeland. They came to power underGenghis Khan, who conquered western and North China and parts of CentralAsia in the early 1200s. His sons and grandsons expanded the Mongol Empire,which eventually extended from China to the Middle East and the edges ofEurope. Meanwhile, Japan was strongly influencedby Chinese culture, in both government and socioeconomic ideas. As theprovincial nobility grew stronger, the Fujiwara clan gained control (794-1185)until the Minamoto clan seized power, ruling through military dictatorscalled shogunshogunsmperors remained powerless figureheads (1185-1333). The Mongols failed to conquer Japan. After the Mongols were overthrown by theMing dynasty (1368-1644) in China and by others elsewhere in Asia, rivalempires contended for power. The political disintegration closed overlandtrade just as Europes new national states entered an era of explorationand colonialism. The resulting international competition for trade subjectedAsia to encroachment by the empire-building Europeans. By the mid-19thcentury, the major colonial powers in most of Asia were Britain and Russia,with the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, and France holding smaller possessions. .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 , .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 .postImageUrl , .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 , .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204:hover , .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204:visited , .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204:active { border:0!important; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204:active , .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204 .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc0560ca7cbdbba2b7fbd3da2e54c3204:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Importance Of The Byzantine Empire EssayBy 1850 the British controlled the entire Indian subcontinent, while Russiareached the Pacific in 1632, occupied Turkistan in 1750, and secured claimsto the Caucasus in 1828. Chinas experience in this period wasquite different. China traded with Europeans but confined them to a fewrestricted ports to discourage European expansion. In the mid-19th century,armed clashes between China and foreign powers forced China to grant tradeand diplomatic concessions. In Japan western trade stopped, with few exceptions,until an 1854 American mission secured a treaty opening relations. In establishing supremacy, the Europeancolonizers generally took a gradual approach. Requests for trade were followedby demands for forts and land. Advisers were then pressed on local rulers. The ultimate result was annexation and direct rule. The imperialists builtrailroads, roads, canals, and some schools. They invested in the economy,but most economic profits went abroad. By World War II (1939-1945), nationalismand socialism had spread among the Western-educated Asian elite, and movementsfor self-government and independence emerged everywhere. The training ofnative armies and the education of an elite prompted reform and modernization. For example, a revolution in 1911 ended the Qing dynasty in China. However,idealistic reformers were pushed aside, and during World War I (1914-1918)China disintegrated into warlord rule. A long civil war followed betweenthe nationalist Kuomintang and the Communists. Some nations managed to maintain theirindependence. Japan prevented foreign encroachment by rapid modernization. A victory over Russia in 1904 and 1905 boosted Japans international prestige. During the 1930s ambitious young military officers pressed for ultranationalistpolicies, which resulted in a buildup in arms and a Japanese colonial expansionin Manchuria, China, and Southeast Asia. World War II catapulted Asia intoworld prominence. India became a staging area for Allied forces, and theAllies occupied strategic areas in southwestern Asia to protect supplyroutes. The Allied victory in the war further stimulated Asian expectationsfor independence and modernization. By the end of the 1950s, militant independencemovements had largely ended colonial rule in Asia. Postwar rivalry between Communist and non-Communistideologies was part of the global contest between the USSR and the UnitedStates. Communism appealed to many Asians eager for independence, participatorygovernment, and social reforms. The victory of the Soviet-supported PeoplesRepublic of China over U.S.-backed Nationalist forces in 1949 was a majorCommunist triumph. In other locations, such as the Philippines, Malaysia,and Indonesia, Communist forces lost. Other ideological conflicts werefought in Korea, Indochina, and Afghanistan. No Asian country was untouchedby the confrontation between Communist and non-Communist ideologies. Inrecent years, economic and industrial expansion has transformed some Asianareas into world leaders in wealth and industrial output. Despite conflictingambitions and ideologies, and local problems, wide sectors of Asia in the1980s and early 1990s enjoyed economic growth, increased democracy, andimproved living standards!

Free Essays on Civil War Long Arms

Civil War Long Arms In the Civil War up 95% of the total long arms were muzzle loading. In the early days of the war almost 100% of the rifles were muzzle loading. The muzzleloading rifle goes back to the midvil times. The popularity started in the early 1400's. Back then the firearms were bascicly hand held canons and you would like a fuse on a tube that was fastened to a wood handle. They wieghed in excese of 50 pounds in a lot of examples. They were unrielable, crude and often dangerous to the operators. In the early 1600's a new ignition system would change that forever. There was a trigger that when it was related would make the canon fuse spin against a flint and steel â€Å"frizzen† that would cause it to ignight the primary charge. These were called matchlock rifles. Then in the 1700's an even better system of ignightion would come about. This system eliminated the cannon fuse and had a piece of flint that when the trigger was released would strike it against a piece of steel. The sparks were directed into a small dish filled with finally granulated powder â€Å"pan† that this powder in it that led to the primar y charge . This system was called the flintlock and was far supiorerior to the matchlock. It was superior in that it wasn’t as easily affected by moisture and much more reliable, especially in wet conditions. Another system was developed in the early 1800's called the percussion system. The percussion system had a hammer strike a nipple which has a percussion cap on it which was a primer that was incased in brass. The hammer struck it which created a spark into the pan and set the chain reaction for the rifle to go off. This system was even more reliable and durable then the flintlock. During the early years of the war a sudden rush to get arms was demanded by both sides. Also both sides were trying to come up with an arm to out perform the other side that they could avoidably make. Tec... Free Essays on Civil War Long Arms Free Essays on Civil War Long Arms Civil War Long Arms In the Civil War up 95% of the total long arms were muzzle loading. In the early days of the war almost 100% of the rifles were muzzle loading. The muzzleloading rifle goes back to the midvil times. The popularity started in the early 1400's. Back then the firearms were bascicly hand held canons and you would like a fuse on a tube that was fastened to a wood handle. They wieghed in excese of 50 pounds in a lot of examples. They were unrielable, crude and often dangerous to the operators. In the early 1600's a new ignition system would change that forever. There was a trigger that when it was related would make the canon fuse spin against a flint and steel â€Å"frizzen† that would cause it to ignight the primary charge. These were called matchlock rifles. Then in the 1700's an even better system of ignightion would come about. This system eliminated the cannon fuse and had a piece of flint that when the trigger was released would strike it against a piece of steel. The sparks were directed into a small dish filled with finally granulated powder â€Å"pan† that this powder in it that led to the primar y charge . This system was called the flintlock and was far supiorerior to the matchlock. It was superior in that it wasn’t as easily affected by moisture and much more reliable, especially in wet conditions. Another system was developed in the early 1800's called the percussion system. The percussion system had a hammer strike a nipple which has a percussion cap on it which was a primer that was incased in brass. The hammer struck it which created a spark into the pan and set the chain reaction for the rifle to go off. This system was even more reliable and durable then the flintlock. During the early years of the war a sudden rush to get arms was demanded by both sides. Also both sides were trying to come up with an arm to out perform the other side that they could avoidably make. Tec...

High School Finals vs. College Finals

High School Finals vs. College Finals Finals are the most pleasant time of the year with all of those books and lecture notes, sleepless nights and gallons of coffee. Okay, we are kidding! Who in the world loves finals? However, even if you are in high school and hate finals, it doesnt mean that you dont want to be mentally prepared for final sessions which await you in college. Or, maybe you are already a college student and want to refresh high school finals in your memory to complain that those kids from high school dont know yet how lucky they are. So, what are the main differences between high school finals and college finals? Which are harder? We have prepared a comparative list just for curious guys like you. High School Finals A lot of college students say that high school finals are childs play. They are much easier and less stressful than the finals in college. We dont mean that finals in high school are as easy as pie. But they are not that big deal. Usually, your tests in high school worth about 15% of the grade and contain only the information that you were studying in class. Surely, they require preparation and  reviewing the materials. You might also need to do online tests and quizzes or study with your friend using question cards. Eat well, have enough sleep, look through your notes before the test and dont panic too much – these are the basic tips for every high school student who wants to pass finals successfully. But if you think that high school finals are the most intense time you experience during academic studying, then we, actually, should tell you the bad news. College finals are nothing like high school ones. College Finals College classes might cover certain materials which you have already studied in high school. For example, a certain book, a poem or historical events. But the approach to studying is very different in college. It requires in-depth research and analysis. Thats why its not surprising that you have to conduct a lot of research while doing college homework. In class, you are provided with essential basis – a skeleton that allows you to build your knowledge around it. Your motivation and your aspiration are the main factors which define your ability to pass the test. So, examining scholarly sources recommended by your professor is not just an option – its â€Å"a must† for you. Otherwise, you wont be able to pass the test. A pro tip: If you are looking for other tips for improving your grades, check out our advice on how you can become an A-level student. The Importance College finals are all about hard work. You can see hundreds of half-asleep students walking around the campus during this period. Grades for finals make 50% of your final grade which causes extra pressure. Final tests are also about managing your schedule as its hard to study well and have part-time job, social life, and hobbies. So, its not surprising that the words â€Å"college finals week† can be found in a student vocabulary somewhere in between â€Å"apocalypse† and â€Å"insomnia.† How to Survive Finals Week So, are there any chances to survive through the college finals week and keep your sanity? Of course, there are. Many students successfully pass their tests if they put enough effort into studying through the semester or if studying hard right before the finals. If you are a college student, then you probably know what the main things that a student needs throughout the finals and a dead week are – something that can be called a college finals survival kit. Basically, such a kit should contain: Stickers, markers, and bookmarks – because you have to look through millions of pages and need to mark the most important things. Candies, cookies, and chocolate bars – because you need to boost your brain activity and reduce stress with sugar or some healthy energy booster food. Energy drinks and coffee – because you will need to spend a lot of time studying and not falling asleep. Caution: be careful with caffeine as its not completely safe.    By the way, the worst thing you can do is pulling all-nighters as this way you will just waste your time. When you are stressed and asleep, especially if studying for too long, your brain cant perceive and remember information properly. That means that you will spend these sleepless nights in vain. Summarizing: The Key Differences So, lets take a look at the key differences between high school and college finals. The Value Finals in high school make up to 15% of your grade, thats why they wont define the final score as much as tasks you completed throughout the studying year. College finals, in their turn, make up to 50% of the grade which causes much pressure, as you can fail the course only because of an unlucky day. The Place for Studying As a high school student, you probably wonder why so many college students prefer having studying sessions in the library? Thats because they need a quiet place that can get them into the right mood to have long studying sessions without being distracted by different factors like noisy roommates. High school students usually study for their tests at home or in places like a buffet, park, etc. The Materials When studying for high school finals, you usually just have to look through the notes you wrote down in class. College students usually can be spotted with tons of books around them and browsing through articles and other sources on the internet. The Difficulty High school finals usually contain predictable questions that you can prepare beforehand. In college, the difficulty of the questions depends on the professors decision only. So, be sure to avoid spoiling your relationship with your professor if you want to pass your college exams. So, these were the main differences between high school and college exams. If you are curious about what other differences between high school and college are, check out our article! Have something to add? Just let us know!

Non Profit Taxes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Non Profit Taxes - Essay Example Non-profit organizations do not operate to bring about profit, a characteristic widely deemed to be the crucial aspect of such organizations. Still, a non-profit organization can accept, hold and pay out money and other items of value. Non-profit organizations may also legally and morally trade at a profit. The degree to which it can produce income may be constrained, and the use of those profits is doubtless restricted. Therefore, nonprofits are characteristically funded by donations from the public or private sector, and generally have tax exempt status. Private donations are sometimes tax deductible. In several countries, non-profit organizations may apply for tax exempt status. This allows financial donors to claim back any income tax paid on donations and, furthermore, the organization itself can be exempt from income tax. In the United States, Tacoma Washington included, following a recognized legal entity that has been created at the state level, it is traditional for the non-profit organizations to ask for tax exempt status with respect to income tax. That is achieved by applying to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The IRS reviews the application to ensure the purpose of the organization. If certain conditions are met then the organization is given the status of a tax exempt organization (example: a charity).

Brand message placement and print circulation Coursework

Brand message placement and print circulation - Coursework Example The printed press is also losing ground to the internet. People prefer to read their news online than to read them from newspapers and magazine. Due to this tendency advertisers have realized that digital media is the wave of the future. There are different ways in which companies can advertize their products online. Companies can use different online strategies such email advertising, online classified ads, banners, links, and search engine placement among other popular strategies. The cost of advertising online is much cheaper than the traditional media channels. Another advantage of online advertising is that companies can target their audience better. For example a company that sells sporting goods can advertise in specialized sporting websites such as espn.com or yahoo sports. The internet also has the capability to track better the results of an advertising campaign. If a company invests in search engine ads and pays for 10,000 hits, the advertiser will receive the amount of views that it paid

Bridge Discuss the complex relationship between Eddie and Catherine Essay Example for Free

Bridge Discuss the complex relationship between Eddie and Catherine Essay The play is set in a slum area in Brooklyn.Between 1861 and 1920, 30 million people immigrated into America. Many people settled by the ports as there was a steady supply of work from the ships and Eddie Carbone is one of these longshoremen.  Eddie is the forceful, irrational protagonist with many complex emotions while his niece (by marriage only) is rather naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve and open. As they live in the same house, they spend most of their time with each other and get on well together as family.   Eddie and Beatrice (his wife) took Catherine in when her mother died and therefore, Eddie feels a great sense of responsibility; I promised your mother on her deathbed. Im responsible for you.  To Catherine, he is like a paternal figure, and she does love and respect him that way. At first, I also believe that is how Eddie thinks of her.  He provides a good home for her, puts food on the table and sees her through education, I think truly wanting the best for her- to go up in the world. His aspirations are high;  I broke my back payin her stenography lessons so she could go out and meet a better class of people.  His social aspirations for her are obviously higher than his own community- but does that mean he is snobbish of his own class? I think, perhaps slightly.  Eddies protectiveness of Catherine can be just like a normal fathers, as he says about her new skirt;  I think it too short, aint it? But often, this protectiveness can turn into dominance and possessiveness over his niece and his attitude towards her becomes unnatural. Eddie is never completely at ease. He tells her shes walkin wavy, but this is because he is subconsciously sexually attracted to her. He criticises her appearance and behaviour because she is attractive to other men and he does not like that. I think, in a way, he believes she is his and he wants her all to himself- i.e. if he cannot have her, no one can. I think to aid this, he tries to keep her a little girl, when actually, she is becoming a woman;  Youre a baby.. when you stand here by the window waving outside.  The word baby is mentioned constantly as if it will eventually persuade Catherine that she is one. This environment would be suffocating for her.  However, Beatrice isnt blind to all this;  You gonna keep her in the house all your life?  Eddie (insulted); What kinda remark is that?  She has not had sex with Eddie for quite a while and I think she knows it is because of his desire for Catherine. When Alfieri makes a joke about Catherine not being able to marry Eddie, he doesnt laugh, as he starts to realise his sexual feelings for Catherine are becoming more apparent. When Beatrice finally says;  You want somethin else, Eddie, and you can never have her!  He is stunned with silence, but I think deep down, he knows it is the truth.  Eddies positive and negative elements are often intertwined, but I think his intentions for Catherine were good; however the feelings he acquired for her should have been dealt with differently. Catherines attitude to Eddie is entirely different though. Eddie who lays down the laws heavily influences her, but she seems totally unaware of her sexual appeal generally, but especially to Eddie. Beatrice actually has to tell her about it;  but youre a grown woman and youre in the same house as a grown man. So youll act different now, heh?  Although Catherine is rather innocent, but I think that is because she is overprotected, so, in effect, there is a viscous circle. Catherines attitude to Eddie is, totally non-sexual, but after Beatrices talk, she does start to become aware of what could be going on, perhaps a little.  It didnt even cross her mind that she was a potential rival to Beatrice;  He said you was jealous?  When Catherine falls in love with Rodolfo, Eddie cannot stand this, and does everything in his power to stop it, as his subconscious desires tear him apart slowly. He even calls the immigration bureau and risks his respect (which means so much to him) for her.  I feel that both Eddie and Catherine were partly to blame for the tragic end of their relationship and in general. However, Catherine gained her confidence and independence a little more toward the end of the play. Eddies possessiveness and dominance over Catherine suffocated her into staying a baby, but I feel she could/should have been more self- aware, especially of the situation around her.

James Baldwin Essay -- essays papers

James Baldwin Another Country and Go Tell it on the Mountain are two of James Baldwin's most analyzed novels. Some see both novels as great additions to American literature, while others criticize Baldwin's unique writing style used in both works. Another Country has been called a true American classic, and also a literary failure. At any rate, it is an extremely controversial novel filled with controversial characters. The majority of the novel is filled with either talk or fornication, and at least halfway through the novel the talk takes over and begins to control it. Baldwin's Another Country is divided into categories. These categories, including black/white, hetero/homosexual, and male/female are constantly brought up throughout the novel. The novel is divided into three sections and covers four narratives. Each narrative focuses on two characters, and the eight main characters interact throughout the novel. All of the pairs focus on the categories that were mentioned before. Rufus Scott and Leona make up the first pair of characters. Rufus is a black jazz ...

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods

Discuss the main differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection and analysis in management research. Your answer should make reference to the philosophical assumptions which underpin these methodological approaches. Introduction Whenever a decision is made to undertake a piece of research a method for conducting the study is required. In scientific research the techniques typically used for data collection and analysis are those which allow the evaluation of data to test a predetermined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). An example of this is a laboratory-based experiment where the researcher can be in full control of all the variables involved and can therefore be sure that any change in the phenomena under investigation is a direct result of an identified and controlled stimulus. In marketing research however, which is usually reliant on some aspect of human influence, it has been proposed that such a uniform, rigid approach is not appropriate: â€Å"There is never a single, perfect research design that is the best for all marketing research projects, or even a specific type of marketing research task. (Malhotra and Birks, 2000: p. 70) The aim of this assignment is to critically evaluate the quantitative and qualitative approaches to research, specifically focusing on the marketing perspective. To do this, consideration is firstly given to the basic differences between the qualitative and quantitative approaches, considering the seemingly opposing theoretical paradigms from which they have origina ted. Subsequently the development of the marketing discipline is examined with a specific focus on how and why different research methods have been employed in the field. Attention is Page 1 of 1 iven to the need for marketing to address both the issue of verifying existing hypotheses, and the requirement to develop new theory. As there appears to be no ideal research method for use in marketing it would seem that what is important is being critically aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches available. Finally, therefore, the notion of pluralism, or methodological triangulation, is explored as such an approach is often used to exploit the strengths and minimise weaknesses in research design through the combination of two or more research methods, often from opposing theoretical paradigms. Basic differences between quantitative and qualitative research Qualitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection, analysis and interpretation of data that cannot be meaningfully quantified, that is, summarised in the form of numbers. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Whereas quantitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection of data that involves larger, more representative respondent samples and the numerical calculation of results. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Historically it has been considered that science based disciplines such as mathematics and physics are especially suited to quantitative research methods. Such methods are considered to be objective and lead to numerical, absolute outcomes, which can be verified through repetition and further testing (Zikmund, 2000); in other words the knowledge is external to the knower (Milliken, 2001), and therefore is available be found by whoever conducts the necessary research (Cunningham, 1999). This view of natural science can be considered to fit within the positivist paradigm, where a paradigm can be thought of as theoretical framework for looking at a situation and a basis upon which phenomena can be analysed and interpreted Page 2 of 2 (Gill and Johnson, 2002). Kuhn (1970) supports the need for paradigms on the basis that they bind disciplines together, and without them there would be no valid position from which to undertake research. Deshpande (1983) suggests that the acceptance of a particular theoretical aradigm is typically followed by a choice of a specific set of research methods that appear to fit within it. This is perhaps exemplified by the significant use of laboratory experiments in pure scientific disciplines. Within the social sciences however there has been a long-standing debate surrounding which philosophical standpoint, or paradigm, it is appropriate for research methods to be derived from (Milliken, 2001). Cohen et al (2000) consider there to be two m ajor, apparently contradictory, views relating to how research should be conducted within social science. The first aligns social science with natural science and therefore implies that research in the field should be directed towards the search for universal laws which regulate individual social behaviour. The second focuses on the human element of social science research, with recognition of the notion that people are not inanimate objects and therefore cannot be treated as such. Aligning social science with natural science arguably implies that data collection and analysis is best performed from a positivist standpoint. As research methods favoured by positivists tend towards those reliant on quantification (Gill and Johnson, 2002), it would follow that in management research the focus should be on quantitative research methods. Research conducted from the positivist viewpoint is usually considered to be reductionist in nature, and is often termed hypothetico-deductive, as it aims to derive a result in relation to a predefined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). Conversely, an approach to research which embraces human individuality and places emphasis on how people perceive and give meaning to their own Page 3 of 3 socially created world, can be considered constructivist (Hunt, 1994), and phenomenological (Gill and Johnson, 2002). The focus from this standpoint is therefore on understanding, interpreting and building theory rather than objectively testing, deducing and verifying an existing hypothesis. Such an approach can be considered inductive in nature and therefore favours the adoption of qualitative research methods. ollows: â€Å"†¦the most telling and fundamental distinction between the paradigms is on the dimension of verification versus discovery†¦quantitative methods have been developed most directly for the task of verifying or confirming theories and†¦qualitative methods were purposely developed for the task of discovering or generating theories. † (Reichardt and Cook, 1979: cited in Deshpande, 1983: p. 105 ) This can be explained further as At the extreme of the inductive spectrum lies the concept of grounded theory developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Here the researcher builds theory based entirely on the data obtained in a particular study without the influence of predetermined knowledge or preconceived hypotheses. Taking deduction to the extreme hypotheses can only ever be tested, raising the question of how it is possible to obtain a hypothesis in the first place. This presents a number of dilemmas with regard to research in the field of management, including whether it is more appropriate to test existing hypotheses or to develop new theory. The theory-testing versus theory-generation debate is particularly significant in the field of marketing as, due to the relative youth of the discipline, marketers are faced with the challenge of both obtaining and maintaining respect and credibility for the work that has been done so far (Bartels, 1983); and continuing to generate theory needed to develop a coherent, holistic body of knowledge which will clear up marketing’s existing â€Å"theory mess† (Gummesson, 2002: p. 349). Page 4 of 4 Development of research in the field of marketing The discipline of marketing, which came about as a departure from economics not long after 1900, originally had no identity of its own. There was no predetermined framework for its development, nor any real expectation of what it should, or could, become (Bartels, 1983). The way the discipline started to develop however led to a belief that it had â€Å"†¦meritorious scientific character† (Bartels, 1983: p. 34), which subsequently influenced ideas about the way in which credible research in the field should be conducted. Consequently approaches to research in marketing have historically been dominated by deductive processes (Hyde, 2000). Milliken (2001) supports this with the observation that within the marketing literature there has been little attention paid to qualitative research. If marketing was universally accepted to be akin to a pure science then this may be an acceptable situation. It has been suggested however that, rather than being a science, marketing is actually an art which belongs both to the world of business and the school of humanities (Halliday, 1999). It was noted by Deshpande (1983) that in the early 1980s there were only four major textbooks dealing with the metatheoretical issues in marketing, and it can therefore be understood that â€Å"†¦self conscious reflection on theory construction in marketing is of fairly recent origin. † (p. 104). Peter (1982), supported by Deshpande (1983), argues that the dominant philosophical approach applied in marketing is that of logical empiricism. Such a positivist approach forces a â€Å"†¦search for causality and the assumption of determinism† (Hunt, 1994: p. 7), which directs those conducting marketing research towards hypotheticodeductive methods for the verification of existing theories rather than development of new ones. Page 5 of 5 Goulding (1999) suggests that the popularity of the positivist paradigm may be down to the more transparent rules which it projects with regard to the basis of hypotheses and their testing, resulting in a clearer picture of what is a ccepted to be known and what remains unknown or untested. As marketing is a relatively young discipline, quantitative methods have therefore been regularly favoured over qualitative methods in an attempt to establish credibility and respectability (Bartels, 1983). Bass (1993) unreservedly supports quantitative research and the scientific view of marketing, on the basis of the need to make general laws and principles which can be widely applied. To emphasise his position further Bass (1993) repeatedly refers to the discipline as not as â€Å"marketing† but as â€Å"marketing science†. Despite this apparent favouritism of qualitative research, for establishing integrity and credence, it has been suggested that marketing as a discipline has failed to develop a coherent theoretical foundation due to the inappropriate selection and use of methods within the framework of logical empiricism (Leone and Schultz, 1980). criticises how qualitative research is implemented. Gummesson (2001) also He questions whether or not it is ppropriate to make a jump from a subjective answer given by a person, perhaps in the form of a questionnaire response, to hard facts about the population being studied, and furthermore if a model being selected for use in marketing research can be an appropriate proxy for the particular situation being studied. Gummesson (2001) instead advocates an interactive approach to research in marketing based on â€Å"†¦a humanistic, hermeneutic and phenomenological paradigm. (p. 40). Deshpande (1983) is in agreement with this and proposes that, rather th at the incorrectly using quantitative research methods, the shortfall in theory development in the field may lie in the inappropriate adoption of a quantitative paradigm where a qualitative one would be more appropriate: â€Å"If we ignore the qualitative paradigm, we also by definition exclude the principal systematic means of theory generation. † (Deshpande, 1983: p. 106) Page 6 of 6 The dominance of logical empiricism in marketing has therefore been seen as potentially detrimental to the discipline, because the successful development of an appropriate holistic and sound body of theory is necessary for the credibility of the field in both management and academe (Bartels, 1983). Hunt (1994) however observes that scholars in the field of marketing, particularly those reviewing papers for publication in academic journals, may themselves be responsible for the lack of theory generation by being over critical when reviewing the work of those who attempt to make an original contribution. According to Gummesson (2001) this behaviour reinforces the belief that to build a publications record, and a respectable reputation, marketers are being encouraged to test existing theory using quantitative methods rather than generate theory through qualitative investigation. This, it has been suggested, has resulted in there being no development in general management marketing theory over recent decades, leaving marketing as an array of disjointed theories and ideas founded on arguably obsolete principles Gummesson (2001). The lack of credibility given to qualitative research techniques in marketing from the academic perspective does however appear somewhat ironic given that such methods are widely adopted in marketing research in industry (Deshpande, 1983). Although it may appear that qualitative marketing research is a relatively recent revelation, Deshpande (1983) argues that this is not the case. He observes that there was significant interest in the topic in the 1950s and 1960s. In the early 1980s, Fern (1982) suggested that the reason one specific qualitative technique, focus groups, had failed to gain prominence was a lack of empirical testing, which would allow the theory development necessary to acquire credibility. In other words a qualitative technique struggled to generate recognition because it could not satisfy the positivistic evaluation criteria needed to do so. This is perhaps indicative of the historical power of positivism in marketing academia in determining what can be accepted as credible Page 7 of 7 nd what cannot, regardless of whether or not techniques are accepted in the commercial environment. Malhotra and Peterson (2001) suggest that for marketing to move forward in the twenty-first century it is necessary to bridge the gap between the academic and commercial positions. There is evidence of increasing acceptance of qualitative methods in marketing research, especially in managing research as the marketplace evolves. For example Kozinet z (2002) developed â€Å"netnography† as a technique for gaining insight into online communities based on a combination of the principles of ethnography and focus groups. Quantitative techniques it would appear still have their place in marketing research too, despite the criticisms levelled at them. The SERVQUAL questionnaire for example, originally developed by Parasuraman et al (1988), relies on the collection of data which can be statistically manipulated to determine levels of service quality. Notwithstanding the substantial criticism it has received (see Buttle, 1996), it is still being used in marketing research today (see e. g. DeMoranville and Bienstock, 2003). What it would consequently appear important to recognise is that both quantitative and qualitative methods have their place in marketing research; neither is sufficient on its own, and there is potentially for significant advances to be made if marketing researchers acknowledge this (Deshpande, 1983). Triangulation and methodological pluralism There is a place in marketing research for both qualitative and quantitative research. There is also a significant risk that overly staunch advocates of a single paradigm will forego the quality of their research by valuing the methodological choice above the aim of the particular Page 8 of 8 study (Bartels, 1983). From a marketing research perspective the importance therefore lies in recognition of the relative advantages and disadvantages of both the qualitative and quantitative research and the understanding of the strengths and weakness of particular methods. Cahill (1996) supports this with the recognition that qualitative and quantitative techniques can be complementary, and Milliken (2001) suggests that the reality of a real research situation demands compromise between the seemingly opposed philosophical standpoints on which the methods are based. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods presents the researcher with an opportunity to compensate for the weakness in each approach. (Deshpande, 1983), and within the field of marketing there appears to be a significant move towards combining qualitative and quantitative research methods (Milliken, 2001). Perry (1998) emphasises the benefit of case study methodology in marketing and suggests that there is no need to consider induction and deduction to be mutually exclusive when selecting a research method. He emphasises that realism is the most appropriate paradigm from which to undertake marketing research as it allows the building of new theory whilst incorporating existing knowledge. Strength in method combination does not necessarily have to include qualitative and quantitative approaches. Hall and Rist (1999) present a marketing study based on the triangulation of purely qualitative research methods including focus groups, observation and document examination. They argue that doing this eliminates the risks of relying on a single method and therefore enhances research quality and strengthens the credibility of qualitative techniques. Page 9 of 9 Methodological pluralism, whilst appearing to offer reconciliation between opposing theoretical paradigms in relation to research method choice, does itself introduce debate and criticism. Gill and Johnson (2002) for example note that embracing realism can be seen as accepting positivism at the cost of phenomenology as it may involve the †¦operationalization and measurement of social reality (stimuli) and action (response)†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 170). Consequently, combining research methods can itself become part of the argument rather than a solution. Conclusion The decision of whether to adopt qualitative or quantitative methods in management research historically appears to be based on the philosophical assumptions upheld by the individual researcher or the discipline in which he or she is work ing. A paradigmatic dichotomy between positivism and phenomenology (or constructivism) would seem to have resulted in a situation where, in some instances, the research methodology choice is deemed more significant than the subject of the particular study. Marketing is a relatively young discipline within the field of management and, as such, is faced with the challenge of obtaining and maintaining credibility. To do this it has been proposed that it needs to both test existing theory and generate new theory, however the processes required to achieve these two goals can be seem to stem from diametrically opposed paradigms: theory-testing being achievable through deductive methods; and theory generation relying on an inductive approach. This incommensurability has however been challenged with the assertion that what is important is selecting an appropriate methodology for a particular study, rather than fitting a Page 10 of 10 study to a method. Methodological triangulation has been suggested as a means of achieving this, with a move towards a paradigm of realism where the relative advantages and disadvantages of a number of research methods can be embraced. Whilst at face value this approach may appear to offer a compromise offering the best practical solution to the methodological choice dispute, it also introduces criticism of its own which, in turn fuels the debate further. The general aim of this discussion, to consider the differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods, has itself been conducted from an ostensibly positivistic standpoint. In fact any discussion, comparison or assessment of research methods is arguably starting from a predetermined premise that an objective evaluation is being undertaken (Gill and Johnson, 2002), and can therefore be seen to be embracing positivist ideals. Taking into account the amount of attention that has been paid to philosophical approaches to management research; the ambiguities that are apparent; the ongoing search for the most suitable and appropriate means for conducting studies; and the motivation to establish and maintain credibility, it would seem unlikely that end to the debate regarding research methods in management is in sight: â€Å"Like the earth being round, thus lacking a natural end, the journey in Methodologyland has no end. You search again and again and again, just as the term says: re-search, re-search, re-search. (Gummesson, 2001: p. 29) Page 11 of 11 References Bartels, R. (1983), â€Å"Is marketing defaulting its responsibilities? †, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 32-35 Bass, F. M. (1993), â€Å"The future of research in marketing: Marketing Science†, Journal of Marketing Research, 30(1), pp. 1-6 Buttle, F. (1996), â€Å"SERVQUAL: review, critique, research agenda†, European Journal o f Marketing, 30(1), pp. 8-32 Cahill, D. J. (1996), â€Å"When to use qualitative methods: a new approach†, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 14(6), pp. 16-20 Cohen, L. , Manion, L. and Morr, K. 2000), Research Methods in Education, 5th Edition, Routledge: London Cunningham, A. C. (1999), â€Å"Commentary confessions of a reflective practitioner: meeting the challenges of marketing’s destruction†, European Journal of Marketing, 33(7/8), pp. 685-697 DeMoranville, C. W. and Bienstock, C. C. (2003), â€Å"Question order effects in measuring service quality†, International Journal of research in Marketing, 20(3), pp. 217-231 Deshpande, R. (1983), â€Å"Paradigms Lost: On theory and method in research in marketing†, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 101-110 Fern, E. F. 1982), â€Å"The use of focus groups for idea generation: the effects of group size, acquaintanceship, and moderator on response quantity and quality†, Journal of Marketing Research , 19(1), pp. 1-13 Gill, J. and Johnson, P. (2002), Research Methods For Mangers, 3rd Edition, London: SAGE Publications Ltd Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L. (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, Aldine Publishing Company: Chicago Goulding, C. (1999), â€Å"Consumer research, interpretive paradigms and methodological ambiguities†, European Journal of Marketing, 33(9/10), pp. 59-873 Gummesson, E. (2001), â€Å"Are current research approaches in marketing leading us astray? †, Marketing Theory, 1(1), pp. 27-48 Gummesson, E. (2002), â€Å"Practical value of adequate marketing management theory†, European Journal of Marketing, 36(3), pp. 325-349 Hall, A. L. and Rist, R. C. (1999), â€Å"Integrating multiple qualitative research methods (or avoiding the precariousness of a one-legged stool)†, Psychology & Marketing, 16(4), pp. 291304 Page 12 of 12 Halliday, S. 1999), â€Å"I don’t know much about art, but I know what I like: resonance, relevance and illumination as assessment criteria for marketing research and scholarship†, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 17(7), pp. 345-362 Hunt, S. D. (1994), â€Å"On rethinking marketing: Our discipline, our practice, our methods†, European Journal of Marketing, 28(3), pp. 13-25 Hyde, K. F. (2000), â€Å"Recognising deductive processes in qualitative research†, Qualitative Market Research, 3(2), pp. 82-90 Kozinets, R. V. (2002), â€Å"The field behind the screen: Using Netnography for marketing research in online communities†, Journal of Marketing Research, 39(1), pp. 1-72 Kuhn, T. S. (1970), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd Edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Leone, R. P. and Schultz, R. L. (1980), â€Å"A study of marketing generalizations†, Journal of Marketing, 44(1), pp. 10-18 Malhotra, N. K. and Birks, D. F. (2000), Marketing Research: An Applied Approach, 3rd European Edition, Harlow, Engl and: Financial Times Prentice Hall Malhotra, N. K. and Peterson, M. (2001), â€Å"Marketing research in the new millennium: emerging issues and trends†, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 19(4), pp. 16-235 Milliken, J. (2001), â€Å"Qualitative research and marketing management†, Management Decision, 39(1), pp. 71-77 Parasuraman, A. , Grewal, D. and Krishnan, R. (2004), Maketing Research, Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company Parasuraman, A. , Zeithaml, V. A. and Berry, L. L. (1988), â€Å"SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumers perceptions of service quality†, Journal of Retailing, 64(1), pp. 12-40 Perry, C. (1998), â€Å"Process of a case study methodology for postgraduate research in marketing†, 32(9/10), pp. 785-802 Peter, J. P. 1982), â€Å"Current issues in the philosophy of science: Implications for marketing theory – a panel discussion†, in Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives, Bush, R. F. and Hunt, S. D. (eds. ), Chicago, American Marketing, pp. 11-16 Reichardt, C. S. and Cook, T. D. (1979), â€Å"Beyond qualitative versus quantitative methods†, in Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Evaluation Research, Cook, T. D and Reichardt, (eds. ) Beverley Hills, CA: Sage Zikmund, W. G. (2000), Business Research Methods, 6th Edition, Orlando, USA: The Dryden Press, Harcourt College Publishers Page 13 of 13

Business in sport †SWOT analysis for DONFI Essay

Business in Sport Identify the Market Research methods that are used in two selected sports Organisations. I will start this assignment by explaining that market research is the gathering of information and studying the data collected relating to the consumers preference. This gives a company an insight prior to introducing a product on to the market. For my first sports company I will choose DONFI. I will start by doing a SWOT analysis, then explain the 4 P’s relating to market research and lastly PEST. A SWOT analysis stands for, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. So I can relate this to DONFI by explaining that their- STRENGTHS- are that the company came up with an idea of producing t-shirts which a variety of people would buy, they knew they would be unique as the designs were imported from America. The costs were aimed at students not earning a great deal of money this insured the t-shirts would gain interest but at the same time they were still priced so the company would be making profit. Lastly the team that started the company had great belief in the products to succeed which made selling them easier. WEAKNESSES- The fact that DONFI had only a couple of months to get the company up and running made it hard especially as once we got it running there was again only a few months to sell all the produce. This meant that everyone needed to be dedicated. Also the area in which the produce was being sold was the best DONFI could have but would have been better if they had more than one sales area. Another issue would be that if we were to run out of stock we would have to bulk order the next batch which may be too many. OPPORTUNITIES- DONFI would need to think about expanding their sales area in the future to increase sales. They could also expand on their stock by this I mean that they could introduce more designs in perhaps a variety of coloured t-shirts and also bring in smaller t-shirts rather than large as the demand seemed to be greater. THREATS- The threats to this company are that they need to stay aware of other competition wanting to start similar companies and also the designs used may become more common from larger outsider companies. DONFI also need to be aware that the team is going to have to break apart some day down to a variety of interests and future aspirations of individuals. The 4 P’s relating to Marketing stand for Product, Price, Promotion and Place. I will now relate these to DONFI- PRODUCT- This can be either a good product like the idea of the unique T-shirts or a good service provided to a customer the person that buys the product or the consumer the person that wears DONFI’S T-shirt. In this companies case they provide a product range to both. This company is not big enough to sell forming as a chain of distribution because they don’t have the quantity (although they could get it). What DONFI does is realise who their target market is all and sell to them. PRICE- DONFI realised straight away that if the price wasn’t right they would not succeed. This means that the price needs to suit the quality of the product as well as being suited to your target consumers. DONFI attempted to sell shirts at  £15 to begin with but then realised that they were not grabbing the attention of the customer so by lowering the price to  £10 the company was able to break even and start making profit. This method they used is known as cost-plus pricing, where they add a profit mark up to the unit cost. PROMOTION- the main aims are to inform and make people aware of the product being sold. So DONFI did this by distributing flyers, word of mouth and advertising their product on the internet and on TV screens where all students will be made aware of the product. Sales promotions during events were advertised with new flyers to attract more people to buy for the event being advertised. Also by highlighting promotions e.g. 1 T-shirt for  £7 or 2 T-shirts for  £10 attracts customers wanting a good deal. PLACE- DONFI needed to think of the most cost effective way to get the product across to the consumer. DONFI attempted direct marketing on the internet by saying if you were interested in the shirts then contact the Managing Director direct.

Greek Architecture in Egypt Essays

Greek Architecture in Egypt Essays Greek Architecture in Egypt Essay Greek Architecture in Egypt Essay Instead of covering nearly every bit of space with ornament, as the Egyptians did, the Greeks selected only the best places for it, and thus gave it its proper effect. The decorations, especially the sculptures, were one of the chief features of a Greek temple. Besides their temples the Greeks built many theaters which may be studied from their ruins, but of their dwelling-houses almost nothing remains to us. The Greek style is noted for the repose, harmony, and proportion of its effect. These are terms we might use in speaking of a painting, but they relate to the composition of a building which is, in many respects, similar to the composition of a picture. In selecting his materials, and style, and site, and in arranging his masses of stones; in placing the lights and shades, and in producing an effect of symmetry and balance, the architect is doing much the same things that a painter does in composing his pictures. As to proportion, we may say, in a general way, that Doric temples were twice as long as they were wide, and once and a half as high as they were wide. : The column was about six times its diameter in height, while the capital was one-half one diameter in height. CLIMATIC INFLUENCES:- To make further comparison with the Egyptian, we notice that the Greek made a gable to his roof. This was to ward off the weather, a thing the Egyptian never had to think of. It shows us how climate will bring out new features in architecture, and that, what might be beautiful in Egypt, might seem ridiculous in Chicago. Only the suitable is beautiful. STYLE OF CONSTRUCTION:- Using stone as the main constructional material led to trabeated and columned architecture, resembling that of the temple architecture in Ancient Egypt. Because many Greek buildings were made of wood, mud-brick, or clay, nothing remains of them except for a few ground-plans, and almost no written sources on early architecture or descriptions of these embryonic buildings exist. Common materials of Greek architecture were wood, limestone, and bronze. Those materials were used to construct five simple types of buildings: religious, civic, domestic, funerary, or recreational themes. GREEK ARCHITECTURE:- There is a very early period of Greek architecture, the remains of which are mainly tombs and gateways. The ending of the war between the Greeks and the Persians delivered the country from the fear of invasion, and left it free to exercise the arts of peace. Under Pericles, the old temples were rebuilt with greater splendor. This was the Golden Age of Greek Art, both in architecture and in the sister art of sculpture. Pericles was the great figure, in Athenian public affairs for forty years; the one man power of his time. His fleets overcame the neighboring countries, and the wealth and prosperity of Greece was the greatest in the world. He was a believer in art, and under him flourished the great sculptor Phidias, who superintended the construction of Pericles buildings. Sculptures made by Phidias, or under him, with which to adorn the temples, were the best the world has seen to this day. Sculpture was then as much a part of a fine building as the stone itself, and Pericles had such an idea of the importance and value of beautiful things that he kept the best artists busily at work. The result was that he made Athens the most beautiful city in the world. GREEK TEMPLES:- The architecture that we know as Greek is the most perfect of all architecture, and the Parthenon, a temple at Athens, is its best example All Greek temples faced the east and in front of them there was an altar for the sacrifices.. The Greeks loved both freedom and beauty, and their temples were true and noble expressions of themselves and their aspirations. Their religion, though different from the religions of today, was a pure and lofty one, and entered largely into their architecture. Their temples were built to do honor to their gods, and were set upon their beautiful hills. All Greek temples resemble each other in so many respects that, having seen one, we should never be at a loss to recognize another. There were three different orders, named Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Every order consists of two essential parts, a column and its entablature. The column is divided into three parts; base, shaft, and capital. The entablature or upper part of the building, which is supported by the column, consists of architrave, frieze, and cornice. The character of an order is displayed not only in its column, but in its ornaments, its general style, and its detail. THE GREEK DORIC ORDER:- The Doric order is the oldest and strongest as well as the most simple of the three Greek orders, combining with solidity and force, the most subtle and delicate refinement of outline. The column of the Doric order has no base, that is, it rests directly on the stone platform, and is thicker at the bottom than at the top, swelling outward in a subtle curve called entasis. The Doric column was fluted. The fluted part is called the shaft and the top of the column is the capital. The capital of the Doric column is very plain. THE GREEK IONIC ORDER:- The Ionic order is named from the Ionic race, by which it is supposed to have been developed and perfected. The distinguishing characteristic of the column of this order is the volute, or spiral ornament of its capital. In the true Ionic, the volutes have the same form on the front and rear of the column, and are connected on the flanks by an ornamented roll or scroll, except in the case of corner capitals, which have three volutes on the two outer faces The Ionic temples are not so well preserved as the Doric. The most important of the Ionic temples left to us is the Erechtheum at Athens. It differs from other temples in its irregularity. This makes it doubly interesting for it shows that although the Greeks nearly always adhered to one simple form, they could dispense with it when they wished. In the Erechtheum, they wished to provide for several shrines in one building, and under one roof. The irregularity they have made so beautiful and interesting that it is a wonder they did not repeat the idea many times in other structures. Its two colonnades of different designs, its remarkable north doorway, and the famous caryatid porch to the south are unsurpassed. Another temple, that of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus, was known as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. THE GREEK CORINTHIAN ORDER:- This is the most ornate of the classical orders, and the most slender in its proportions. The capital is shaped somewhat like a bell inverted, and is adorned with rows of acanthus leaves. A great example of the, third, or Corinthian order is the monument of Lysicrates at Athens. Straight is the line of duty. Curved is the line of beauty Follow the one and it shall be; The other shall always follow thee. For such reasons, Greek architecture was called Intellectual. Where on the Aegean shore a city stands, Built nobly, pure the air and light the soil; Athens, the eye of Greece, mother of arts and eloquence. Milton. IDENTIFYING FEATURES:- * Most have porticos (either entry or full-width) supported by prominent square or rounded columns, typically of Doric style, but also Ionic and Corinthian * Gabled or hipped roof of low pitch * Cornice line of main roof and porch roofs emphasized with wide band of trim (this represents the classical entablature and is usually divided into two parts: the frieze above and architrave below) * Enormous windows and doors Front door surrounded by narrow sidelights and a rectangular line of transom lights above, door and lights usually incorporated into more elaborate door surround (ancient Greek structures did not use arches) * Window sashes most commonly with six-pane glazing * Small frieze-band windows, set into the wide trim beneath the cornice (attic), are frequent. These are often covered with an iron or wooden grate fashioned into a decorative Greek pattern. GREEK TEMPLES| NEW EGYPTIAN KINGDOM TEMPLES| LOCATION:Sea everywhere with mountains, hard topography, and outward nature. Location is at the centre of the old world maintained effective communications with other civilizations | Egypt, the land of the Pharaohs,. It was the only country of the ancient world which, by means of the Red Sea, commanded outlets and inlets for foreign trade by both the Mediterranean and Arabian Seas. The Nile itself was of untold value, and it may truly be described as the rich life-blood which runs in the veins of Egypt. On its banks therefore, from time immemorial, the Egyptians founded their cities, both for the living and the dead, and here are the royal pyramids and the priestly temples. GEOLOGICAL:Mineral wealth, different types of stones, mainly marble with various kinds were used . Greek architects were very inspired by neatness of such a material and its potentials, leading to clear-cut surfaces. Such surfaces served perfectly for decorations and extraordinary art work, mainly sculpturing| The natural products, such as timber, brick, clay, and stone, largely determine the character of the architecture of a country. Different types of stones were the materials chiefly employed, for constructive and decorative architectural work, as the country was poor in metals. The gigantic scale which distinguishes Egyptian architecture was made possible not only by the materials, but also by the methods employed in the quarrying of enormous blocks of stone, and in transporting and raising them into position. Recent excavations have revealed the use of sun-dried and burnt bricks for dwelling-houses and royal palaces. | RELIGIOUS:Greek had rather a human-centered cult where the man was the most important feature. The main subjects of decoration were human figures. Even the gods and goddesses were figured in human images. Unlike in Egypt, the temple was not segregated with its priests from the public. It was rather open for them and easily accessible without a barrier. Even the holiest place, the Cella or Naos, where the statue of the gods was laid, had a simple gate almost always facing the East behind a colonnade. | The close connection between religion and architecture is everywhere visible. The religious rites of the Egyptians were traditional, unchangeable, and mysterious, and these traits are reproduced in the architecture, both of tombs and temples. The religion was monotheistic in theory, but became polytheistic in practice through the cult of many gods representing natural phenomena and the heavenly bodies. Judged by the elaborate preparations for the care of their bodies after death the wealthy built themselves tomb-houses against the time when they should enter the great land of silence. | CLIMATIC:It’s mild, intermediate between the accurate cold and relaxing heat. (Notice the pitched roof made of terra cotta covering the typical Greek Temple) This had its reflection on the people and their architecture. It permitted openness of the Greek Temple as well as outdoor activities enjoying the mild sun while practicing different life activities. The outdoor nature of architecture expressed through the trabeated and columned architecture influenced the architecture typology of the buildings. | Egypt has been said to have two seasons, spring and summer. The climate is equable and warm; snow and frost are unknown, while storm, fog, and even rain are rare, and these conditions have contributed to the preservation of the buildings. Its brilliant sunshine conduced also to simplicity of design; for, as sufficient light reached the interior through doors and roof slits, and thus unbroken massive walls protected the interior from the fierce heat of the sun. In the absence of rain, flat roofs of thick stone slabs were sufficient to cover in the building, and to exclude the heat. | SOCIAL:Greek life was organized around the independent and self government city-state. There were at least 700 of them in Greece during this time. All the Greek people, although, shared a common language, with similar religious beliefs and participating in common games The Olympics. A community of citizens (only men), women and slaves (usually obtained from wars) had no rights. Priests were not a segregated or isolated class; they could practice their religious job and retire as common citizens. Egyptian civilization is the most ancient of which we have any clear knowledge. Our information is derived from the Old Testament, and from Greek and Latin authors, but more particularly from Egyptian buildings with their inscriptions. It was the custom to record matters of history on temples, and of domestic and social interest on tombs. | GLOSSARY:- Cella (or naos): T he main chamber of a Greek or Roman temple, built to house the cult statue. Peristyle: The colonnade around a peripteral building or around a court. Peripteral: An adjective describing a building with a colonnade around its entire perimeter. Intercolumniation: The space between two adjacent columns. Stereobate: A solid mass of masonry serving as the visible base of a building, especially a Greek temple. In a Greek temple only the lower steps are called the stereobate; the top step, on which the columns rest, is called the stylobate. Entasis: The swelling convex curvature along the line of taper of classical columns. The entasis of early Greek Doric columns is pronounced, but becomes ever more subtle until, in the columns of the Parthenon, it is barely perceptible. Echinus: In the Doric order, the quarter round molding beneath the abacus of a capital. Abacus: The uppermost part of a capital, forming a slab upon which the architrave rests. Entablature: The group of horizontal member resting on the columns of the one of the classical orders. It is divided into three parts: architrave, frieze, and cornice. Architrave: The lowest member of an entablature, resting directly on the columns. Frieze: The middle member of an entablature, between the architrave and cornice. Triglyph: In the frieze of the entablature of the Doric order -the vertical blocks- which are divided by channels into three sections. Originally, the triglyphs were probably the ends of wooden ceiling beams. Metope: In the frieze of an entablature of the Doric order, one of the panels between the triglyphs sometimes ornamented. Originally, in wooden temple, the metopes may have been openings between the ceiling beams. Cornice: The topmost part of a classical entablature. Pediment: In classical architecture, the low-pitched gable, or triangular area formed by the two slopes of the low-pitched roof of a temple, framed by the horizontal and raking cornices and sometimes filled with sculpture. Orders: An architectural order is one of the classical systems of carefully proportioned and interdependent parts which include column and entablature. Doric: The oldest, studiest, and most severe of the orders. It developed on the mainland of Greece. The most distinguishing characteristic is probably its capital, but note the absence of a column base and the introduction of triglyphs and metopes in the frieze course. Ionic: Its more slender and lighter than the Doric. The Ionic developed in the lands east of the Aegean and was more subject to the influence of older Asiatic styles. It is quickly distinguished by the volutes of its capitals. Note the presence of a column base and the absence of the triglyphs and metopes. Corinthian: Its developed later than the Doric or Ionic. It is distinguished from the Ionic by its capital formed of a circular belle of rows of acanthus leaves. Megaron: A large oblong hall in a Minoan or Mycenaean palace. * Library of Alexandria: The Royal Library of Alexandria was once the largest in the world. It is usually assumed to have been founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II of Egypt after his father had set up the temple of the Muses, the Musaeum (whence we get Museum). The initial organization is attributed to Demetrius Phalereus, and is estimated to have stored at its peak 400,000 to 700,000 parchment scrolls. The librarys destruction remains a mystery. One story holds that the Library was seeded with Aristotles own private collection, through one of his students, Demetrius Phalereus. Another concerns how its collection grew so large. By decree of Ptolemy III of Egypt, all visitors to the city were required to surrender all books and scrolls in their possession; these writings were then swiftly copied by official scribes. The originals were put into the Library, and the copies were delivered to the previous owners. While encroaching on the rights of the traveler or merchant, it also helped to create a reservoir of books in the relatively new city. * Lighthouse of Alexandria: Alexandria, Egypt. This city is where the Lighthouse of Alexandria stood. The city was completed by Ptolemy Soter, the new ruler of Egypt. The city soon became rich. The city needed a symbol and a mechanism to guide the trade ships into its harbor. It was completed 20 years later and was the first lighthouse of the world. It was also the tallest building with the exception of the Great Pyramid. That means that the lighthouse stood between 450 to 600 feet high. A man named Sostrates of Knidos designed the lighthouse. He thought it needed to have his name carved in the foundation. But Ptolemy II, who ruled after his father, refused and wanted his own name carved in. Sostrates, being a clever man, had this inscription put on the lighthouse: SOSTRATES SON OF DEXIPHANES OF KNIDOS ON BEHALF OF ALL MARINERS TO THE SAVIOR GODS. Then he covered it with plaster. Then they put Ptolemys name into the plaster. As years passed, the plaster chipped away, leaving Sostrates declaration. The lighthouse was built on the island of Pharos. Pharos became the word lighthouse in French, Italian, Spanish, and Romanian languages. This lighthouse was designed differently than modern lighthouses. It was more like a 20th century sky scraper. There were three stages which were piled on top of each other. The lowest level was about 200 feet square and was shaped like a huge box. The blocks on which the lighthouse was built were marble. There was a staircase in the lighthouse that led the keepers to the beacon chamber. In there, was a curved mirror. It was used to project a fires light into a beam. Ships could detect the beam from the tower at night or the smoke from it could be seen during the day from up to 100 miles away. I bet youre wondering what happened to the worlds first lighthouse. It stood for 1,500 years but was damaged by tremors in 365 and 1303 A. D. The final collapse came in 1326. ARCHITECTURE in ALEXANDRIA The history of ancient Greek art mainly in the form of sculpture is composed of roughly three periods: the Archaic, the Classical, and the Hellenistic. The Archaic is rather stiff and primitive; the Classical becomes more sophisticated and realistic; and the Hellenistic becomes flowery and highly decorative. These three periods can be thought of in the same way as the three periods of Greek architecture the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. Doric columns are the most simple, Ionic are more highly decorative, and the Corinthian are downright over the top and lavish. Archaic In the Archaic period of Greek art [800-500 BC], sculptures were placed on pedestals lining the way to the entrance to a main temple or for marking graves. The typical statue is of either a male or female figure assuming a rather stiff pose. Male statues are called kouroi (simply meaning young men) and represent gods, warriors, and athletes. The female statues are called korai and depict clothed priestesses, goddesses, and nymphs. Always each has the thin-lipped Archaic smile, perhaps echoing the prosperity and relative peace of the time. During the Archaic period, Greek artists try to achieve realistic likeness in picturing the human figure, and the statues are a far cry from the extremely abstract figures of the geometric style which preceded. In fact, the statues show the influence of Egyptian art in its stiffness, gracefulness, and idealization. But the artists werent quite comfortable with achieving naturalism yet. The archaic smile, outstretched palm, clenched fist, and wooden posture of a striding figure are all stylistic devices that compensate for an inability to portray a figure in realistic full action during this emerging stage of naturalism. Classical During this period [500-323 BC], Greece reaches the height of economic success and cultural and artistic splendor. Its expansionist foreign policy triggers revolts throughout the Hellenic world and rivalry with Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, and Syracuse leads to much fighting and bloodshed. Gone is the dreamy Archaic smile from the sculptures. The Classical period of Ancient Greece produced some of the most exquisite sculptures the world has ever seen. The art of the Classical Greek style is characterized by a joyous freedom of movement and freedom of expression. It celebrates mankind as an independent entity. Artists hold their aesthetic standards to a quest for ideal beauty; this leads to their depicting the human figure in a naturalistic manner because it is the first time in human history that the human body is studied for its aesthetic values. They replace the stiffness of the human figure from the Archaic period with a free-flowing form more true to life. The most significant change is the counterbalance, or s-curve, of the body, known as controposto. One foot comes forward so that one leg is relaxed and the other bears the weight of the body; the pose is much more naturalistic. In the art of Greece during the Classical period the characteristic smile of the Archaic sculpture is replaced by a solemn facial expression. Even in sculptures which depict violent and passionate scenes the faces betray no expression; however, their enemies have dramatic facial expressions. Ancient Greeks believed that suppression of the emotions is a noble characteristic of all civilized men, while the public display of human emotion is a sign of barbarism. Logic and reason are the dominant human qualities even during the most dramatic situations. This is the period that of course so greatly influenced the ascendance of the Renaissance when Italian scholars, writers, and artists experienced a rebirth (renaissance) of classical values after the Middle Ages. The Classical period is considered the golden age for the arts, literature, philosophy, and politics and its principles continue to influence western civilization today. Hellenistic: The Hellenistic period occurred from the third to the first centuries B. C. in the times that spring up after Alexander the Greats conquests. This is a great time of prosperity that encourages the production of art of a more secular nature. A new reality emerges in Greek sculpture. Instead of depicting ideals such as logic and suppressed emotion or perfect beauty, the artists explore reality. For instance, the Boxer shows the boxers bleeding knuckles after the fight. Humane themes such as childhood, old age, ugliness, and suffering are now of interest and are treated with great exuberance and pathos. The Laocoon is the epitome of this style. The Hellenistic period is above all a period of eclecticism. Artists expand their work with dramatic poses and emotions, sweeping lines, and high contrasts of light and shadow. The conventions of the Classical period give way to this new experimentation and freedom that let artists explore subjects from different points of view. Greek architecture| Archaic ca. 800-500 BC| Classical ca. 500-323 BC| Hellenistic ca. 323-27 BC| megaron gt; peripteral temple Doric and Ionic orders| Parthenon, Propylaea, Erechtheum venue seating Corinthian order| Alexandria (Library, Lighthouse) Tower of the Winds| | | |